General Characteristics of the Renaissance
"Renaissance" literally means "rebirth." It refers especially to the rebirth of learning that began in Italy in the fourteenth century, spread to the north, including England, by the sixteenth century, and ended in the north in the mid-seventeenth century (earlier in Italy). During this period, there was an enormous renewal of interest in and study of classical antiquity.
Yet the Renaissance was more than a "rebirth." It was also an age of new discoveries, both geographical (exploration of the New World) and intellectual. Both kinds of discovery resulted in changes of tremendous import for Western civilization. In science, for example, Copernicus (1473-1543) attempted to prove that the sun rather than the earth was at the center of the planetary system, thus radically altering the cosmic world view that had dominated antiquity and the Middle Ages. In religion, Martin Luther (1483-1546) challenged and ultimately caused the division of one of the major institutions that had united Europe throughout the Middle Ages--the Church. In fact, Renaissance thinkers often thought of themselves as ushering in the modern age, as distinct from the ancient and medieval eras.
Study of the Renaissance might well center on five interrelated issues. First, although Renaissance thinkers often tried to associate themselves with classical antiquity and to dissociate themselves from the Middle Ages, important continuities with their recent past, such as belief in the Great Chain of Being, were still much in evidence. Second, during this period, certain significant political changes were taking place. Third, some of the noblest ideals of the period were best expressed by the movement known as Humanism. Fourth, and connected to Humanist ideals, was the literary doctrine of "imitation," important for its ideas about how literary works should be created. Finally, what later probably became an even more far-reaching influence, both on literary creation and on modern life in general, was the religious movement known as the Reformation.
Renaissance thinkers strongly associated themselves with the values of classical antiquity, particularly as expressed in the newly rediscovered classics of literature, history, and moral philosophy. Conversely, they tended to dissociate themselves from works written in the Middle Ages, a historical period they looked upon rather negatively. According to them, the Middle Ages were set in the "middle" of two much more valuable historical periods, antiquity and their own. Nevertheless, as modern scholars have noted, extremely important continuities with the previous age still existed.
Humanism
A common oversimplification of Humanism suggests that it gave renewed emphasis to life in this world instead of to the otherworldly, spiritual life associated with the Middle Ages. Oversimplified as it is, there is nevertheless truth to the idea that Renaissance Humanists placed great emphasis upon the dignity of man and upon the expanded possibilities of human life in this world. For the most part, it regarded human beings as social creatures who could create meaningful lives only in association with other social beings.
In the terms used in the Renaissance itself, Humanism represented a shift from the "contemplative life" to the "active life." In the Middle Ages, great value had often been attached to the life of contemplation and religious devotion, away from the world (though this ideal applied to only a small number of people). In the Renaissance, the highest cultural values were usually associated with active involvement in public life, in moral, political, and military action, and in service to the state. Of course, the traditional religious values coexisted with the new secular values
Nevertheless, individual aspiration was not the major concern of Renaissance Humanists, who focused rather on teaching people how to participate in and rule a society (though only the nobility and some members of the middle class were included in this ideal). Overall, in consciously attempting to revive the thought and culture of classical antiquity, perhaps the most important value the Humanists extracted from their studies of classical literature, history, and moral philosophy was the social nature of humanity.
The Protestant Reformation
Background
Social and Political Factors:
- European decentralization, rise of nation-states. Breakdown of medieval centralization under Pope.
- Breakdown of society because of Black Death, Hundred Years' War, etc.
- Renaissance: Interest in humanism and rediscovery of ancient culture.
- Weaknesses in Catholic Church:
- Administrative Divisions:
- Competing Popes (Avignon, Rome and more).
- Proliferation of Questionable Religious Rituals and Practices
- Pilgrimages, saint worship, endowment of masses.
- Corruption and Abuses of Power in Church:
- Sale of Indulgences (certificates of remission from purgatory) and other forms of forgiveness.
- Simony (selling of church offices).
Central Beliefs of Protestantism
- Accessibility by Laity: "Priesthood of all Believers"
- No need for professional intermediaries (priests, confessors, etc.) between the individual and God.
- Translations of the Bible into the vernacular
- Lay communion.
- Conviction that every profession is a religious "calling," not just the priesthood and monasticism.
Theological Doctrines:
Martin Luther and John Calvin
· Justification by grace and faith, not by works--sometimes led to belief in predestination
- Some groups denied transsubstantiation.
- Rejection of Non-Biblical Traditions (sola scriptura): e.g.: Clerical celibacy, monasticism, sacraments (e.g.: penance, extreme unction, marriage, confirmation, ordination of ministers), pilgrimage.
- Many Protestant churches preferred adult (not infant) baptism.
- Simplification of masses.
The Roman Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)
Council of Trent (1545-63)
- Called for moral reform of clergy
- Strengthening Church structures
